Summer Castles...Quotes of Inspiration

Biological Evolution: Charles Darwin Does Acknowledge a Creator

Questions are from the book, Biological Evolution written by Price.










Author: Richard Drapo
Biological Evolution
Chapter One
2 Sept 1997
　


1. No clear route, Religion is beyond the domain of Science simply because the questions it raises can't be testable by the scientific method.
　
5. Yes, Evolution and belief in Creation should be given equal time and credit ability in the classroom. Some might belief that this is a rational approach, but I don't. Even though the belief in Creation can't be tested by the Scientific Method, the facts can. Facts, such as, time periods, natural occurrences, materialistic items and places are documented to exist to support the belief in Creation. Science can't ignore this evidence because often it is evidence that supports Science.
　
9. Yes, but it is those individuals who get so permeated by evolutionary thought that they do not open their minds to other sources, such as, a God whom also explains human design, societal evolution, human interactions and life and death. The belief in Creation expresses, more so, on the very being of individuals and not just on physical aspects that is characterized by evolutionary thought.

3 Important Concepts
　
1. Theory of Evolution
2. The Scientific Method
3. Micro and Macroevolution
　
Most Important Terms

Scientific Method, Spontaneous generation, Micro and Macroevolution, Scientific theory and Theory of Evolution.
　
A One Page Suggestion on this Course
Biological Evolution
Richard Drapo
　
Set Up
As I look at the syllabus, the structure of this course seems right. Thus, I have no improvements on set up.
　
Grading
Grade on attendance, Completion of Homework, Participation, Does the students participation uplift others? Are student inputs logical? Did the Teacher learn something from the students input? Last but not least, attitude.
　
Course Design
The design of this course looks great except for the homework questions, limit those to 3 questions and elaborate on those questions only twice. There is a lot of good films on Biological Evolution that might be good to show once or twice to give the course variety.
　



Richard Drapo
Chapter Two
Biological Evolution
4 Sept 97
　

4. All the Science's in one way or another have been affected by uniformitarianism. Uniformitarianism defined assumes that geological phenomena is the product of natural forces operating over enormous periods of time with considerable uniformity. Geological phenomena affects everything in its domain rather it be life forms or nonliving things. When various branches of Science are used to study things, in the affected areas, then yes it does have an impact.
　
5. The nature of progress in Science strives for the truth, but before this truth can be realized many theory's are proved false, or at a later time, to be incorrect. Empirical observations are stepping stones that ultimately reveal the truth in science, likewise, they also turn the wheels in the progress of science.
　
6. They were definitely major impacts on his thinking. Lyell's principles of Geology probably was the foundation for his thinking, and Malthus's essays on the principals of population was the "flying arrow."
Lamarck's identification of strata and the fossil's Darwin saw in that strata along with Cuvier's organization and unity approach, subsequently, drove Darwins theories to give an order in the things that he studied and wrote. His world and observations needed organized. He spent a lifetime organizing his observations.
　
9. Species Adaptation An adaptation that promotes the well-being of that particular species in an ever changing environment, directly proportional to that species food sources. An adaptation that can either go forward or backward, such as, a birds beak developing larger or smaller in the next generation. This change would cater to the food available for that next generation at the time of its emergence, but a new species would not originate from those adaptations. Could this be the confusion on sub-species?
　
3 Most Important Concepts

1. The Origin of New Species
2. Natural Selection
3. Darwins Theory of Descent With Modification Through Variation and Natural Selection
　
3 Important Terms

1. Natural Selection
2. Transmutation of Species
3. Uniformitarianism

Richard Drapo
　
3. Darwin came to the conclusion that there was no infallible criterion by which to distinguish species and well-marked varieties. He looked at the word species as "One arbitrary given for the sake of convenience to a set of individuals closely resembling each other...and it does not essentially differ from the term variety, which is given to less distinct and more fluctuating forms." Darwin might of been implying here that sub-species are evident along with species.

5. No, they shouldn't, for example, T. H Morgan denied the importance of natural selection and emphasized the role of variation when he established experimental genetics in North America. A strong evolutionary theme is impossible for all courses of biology as evident with Morgans genetics proposals conflicting with the evolutionary theme.


***Look Folks the JEWEL in the Rough..LOOK LOOK LOOK***

7. Yes, Darwins actual avoidance of using the word evolution. And his mention of life beginning with a Creator, page 51. To make his views candid, he stated that after creation created life in a few forms, the rest of life evolved. Darwin demonstrated denial that maybe all life forms were created, one by one, by a creator. In other words, he had one foot in creation and the other in Biological Evolution. A lot of people don't know about this, and I didn't know either, until now.


Charles Darwin’s use of the word "Evolution." Gould (1974)
noted that Darwin actively avoided use of the word. Even in The Origin of Species he used a form of the word only once, to close the book (Darwin, 1872, p470)

"There is a grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers,
having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms
or into one; and that, whilst this planet had gone cycling on
according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning
endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and
are being evolved."

*** End of the JEWEL in the Rough


3 Main Concepts

1. Darwin's Species Concept
2. Biological Species Concept
3. The Modern Theory of Evolution

3 Main Terms

1. Adaptationist program
2. Panglossian
3. Geographic Isolation

Richard Drapo
　
3. Do you think that there is progress to be made in understanding the nature of species, and which direction would lead to increasing knowledge?
Yes, I believe that we are advancing in the right way now, incorporating the many various concepts and realizing that they hold true to many different aspects of animals, plants and evolutionary lineages.
The phylogenetic species concept seems to be the logical route to follow, but emphasizing the cohesion species concept into the phylogenetic concept is the most logical route.

4. If you were a systematist working on a large group of species, what species concept would you employ?
The Phylogenetic Species Concept.

8. How does the study of complex system of species, such as the syngameon, reticulate phylogenies, hybrid swarms, and micro species, advance scientific knowledge in a general way?
These complex systems advance scientific knowledge by showing evidence that species are hybridizing quite frequently, especially in the plants and insects, and considerable movement of genetic material is occuring in species called Hybrid swarming that favor complex mixtures and backcross types.
Hybrid swarms are strengthening genetic variations among and within species.

9. If Darwin could of read this chapter on species concepts, (say in, 1858), do you think he would have significantly changed his concept of the species in The Origin of Species? Yes.

3 Main Concepts

1. Phylogentic Species Concept
2. Cohesion Species Concept
3. Biological Species Concept

3 Main Terms

1. Syngameon
2. Evolutionary Species Concept
3. Multidimensional View
　
Richard Drapo Chapter 5
　
1. In your estimation, do methods exist for objectively defining or discovering the mode or modes of speciation involved with development of a set of related species?
Yes, The terminology in Biological evolution is full of defined information objectively defining modes of speciation that are relative to the different sciences, such as, chemistry, genetics and biology.

3. Do you think that modes of speciation in plants and animals are basically the same, and should they be treated as such?
No, genetic processes are distinctly different between the two, and parallel evolution is more rampant in the plant world creating new species of plants, more so, than the animals. The modes of speciation are not the same and shouldn't be treated as such, but there are similarities between the two that can be treated the same.

6. Many evolutionary biologists have expressed concern about the sympatric model of speciation and its reality in nature, because it is relatively difficult to understand how reproductive isolation could develop without some kind of Physical isolation between divergent populations. What kinds of research would you propose to clarify this debate?
Research in botany with similar plants that are related to Stephanomeria exigua a plant species.

8. Do you agree that the kinds of species a taxonomist studies are likely to influence views on the prevalence of certain kinds of speciation? For example, would taxonomists of birds, cloning plants, parasitic worms, and soil-dwelling fungi all agree that allopatric speciation is the usual or inevitable mode of speciation?
Yes, this is evident of Darwin's discoveries on the Galapagos Islands. Some taxonomists would agree and others would not.

3 Main Concepts

1. Allopatric Speciation
2. Sympatric Speciation
3. Parapatric Speciation

3 Main Terms

1. Geographic Isolation
2. Reproductive Isolation
3. Founder Effect
　



Richard Drapo
Biological Evolution
22 Sept 97
　
Figure 5-1 Geographic, or Allopatric speciation by division of populations resulting from a geographic barrier.
A barrier(a mountain, natural disaster, such as storms, lava flows and possibly man made objects such as dams) divides parental species, populations evolve independently. Reproductive isolating mechanisms evolve gradually and slowly. On second contact the new species retain distinct gene pools..p76.
　
Richard Drapo Chapter 6
　
1. Which do you consider more important in the evolution of the cell, and which probably evolved first--self-replicating genetic material or cell- like membranes?
Cell-like membranes are more important because it is the cell's first line of defense. Cells want to protect their inner contents from outside influences (other cells or chemicals) that would otherwise destroy the cell or sap up its contents or use it for their own chemical structures. The cell membrane evolved first.

2. To what extent do you think speculation is a valid approach in science, and is it overused in considerations of the origin of life?
Speculation is okay if it is logical and can be explained with factual data, and mostly everyone can agree with it. Perhaps, but the overuse is pretty much backed up with factual or logical data. So is it really overused when it continues to explain the origin of life with very logical assumptions? No.
　
6. Does consideration of the origin of life help with a definition of life? Can you define life?
Yes, from a humanistic standpoint, and man's reasoning of the world around him. A Definition of Life...a continuance endeavor to reproduce with like effects, and the absorbence of nutrients, chemicals and elements to maintain structures that ultimately thrive from the suns energy.

7. If symbiosis were so central to the evolution of eukaryotes and multicellular species, might we expect that symbiosis continued to be a major source of evolutionary innovation during the radiation of fungi, plants, and animals?
Yes, because bacterium, such as, purple bacterium are respiring mutualists, and so it provided the host cell with respiratory capabilities. Undulipodium or eukaryotic flagellum provided locomotion for feeding. All these functions are still needed, and are highly evolved in the plants and animals.

3 Major Concepts

1. The Endosymbiotic Theory of Eukaryotic Cell Evolution
2. Energy sources for life; Inorganic Molecules, Fermentation, Photosynthesis and Respiration.
3. Oparin-Heldane Hypothesis.

3 Major Terms

1. Proteinoid Microspheres
2. Microbial Mats and Stromatolites
3. Trigenomic
　


Richard Drapo Chapter 7
B.E.
October 1997

3. Do you think that the Cambrian explosion resulted from an incredibly creative wave of evolutionary diversification, or is it more likely that the fossil record is incomplete, and a more gradual diversification of life preceded the apparent explosion?
The Cambrian explosion resulted from an incredible creative wave of evolutionary diversification, and Natural selection, working with catastrophic environmental conditions made species go extinct, so a more gradual diversification of species adapted in the niches of those species that became extinct.

6. The evolution of homeothermy, or warm bloodedness which resulted in the mammals, had heavy costs and strong benefits. Can you list some of each? When you consider the status of many mammals today, and their small radiations compared with those of fishes and reptiles, do you think that homeothermy was too costly an adaptation to permit long-term
succes in a changing world?
Heavy costs exist in the lack of mammal fossils. This lack of fossils exist because mammal features are not hard and bony and did not preserve well or not at all. Today, there are 3,000 more reptile species than there are mammal species. Strong benefits of homeothermy include high metabolic rates and high activity levels that help maintain body temperatures well above the ambient temperatures in cool climates. This enabled mammals to adapt night time activities and build up their numbers, while depleting other species for food.

7. Would you argue that the development of terrestrial life was more complex and unlikely in the lineage leading to plants than in the lineage resulting in the reptiles and their descendents?
Probably, Yes but it was plants that helped develop terrestrial life by providing nutrients to fuel this development.

10. Considering all groups of plants, what characteristics do you think have made the angiosperms so numerous with about 250,000 species?
The ability to hybridize and having polyploid complexes.

3 Important Concepts

1. The emergence of seed bearing plants
2. Reptilian Radiations, The development of the egg.
3. The Misty Emergence of the Vertebrates that led to the emergence of mammals

3 Important Terms

1. Cambrian Explosion- The rapid increase in complex marine metazoans that occurred in Cambrain times; it is represented especially well in the Burgess Shale fauna.

2. Pseudomonopodial branching- A growth pattern in plants in which dichotomous branching occurs, with one branch becoming stronger and central--developing into a main axis--and the other becoming lateral.

3. Meckel's catilage-the development of the mandibular arch (lower jaw).
　


Richard Drapo Extinctions Chapter 9
B. E.
5 Oct 1997

3 Main Concepts

1. Pleistocene Overkill Hypothesis- Human Hunters

2. Testing Alternative Hypothesis for Mass Extinctions- K-T Boundary and iridium layers of an asteroid.

3. General Approaches to the Study of Extinctions- Periodicity of Mass Extinctions, Large-Body Impacts with the earth and their possible effects.


3 Main Terms

1. Catastrophic extinction- Follows large-body impact on the earth. Abrupt and global changes cause synchronous extinctions at a geologic boundary, with few survivors from which new originations and radiations can develop, if a lineage persists at all.

2. Stepped mass extinction- Involves groups of species that are sensitive to change going extinct first and more robust groups going extinct in subsequent episodes, with generally elevated rates of extinction across a geological boundary.

3. Graded mass extinction- The rate of extinction increases beyond the background level, straddling a geologic boundary. The appearance of a largely synchronous extinction results from a poor record across the boundary.

5. Extinction appears to be highly selective at most geological boundaries, with major loss of species. How can this observation help to resolve debates on the causes of extinction?
First of all, Do we know the environmental conditions that warranted the extinction of those fossilized species in those boundaries, and can we pin point what factors led to those extinctions in the first place. If we can't reason, and come up with susceptible answers to these questions, we will not win any debates or win the ones that are worthwhile.

6. Do you think scientists should place more emphasis on the individual biologies of the groups involved with extinction and survival, with a balanced examination of habitat, food, and life history traits, including the possibility of competition if the evidence permits?
Yes. I'm sure some scientists all ready do this, particularly those who apply phylogenetics, in their fields of study, and have a strong background in ecology.

8. Do you consider the bases of predictions of human caused future extinctions to be adequate, given the fact that in nature and in human economics compensatory influences are frequently important?
Yes, but they are variable, based on observations and hypothesises.

10. The fossil records for marine species and for angiosperms are two of several indications that diversity of taxa is higher now than ever before. Is it conceivable that diversity will continue to rise with humans present, or will further increases have to wait until after the human species goes extinct?
What a hell of a question!!! Chances are real good that if humans go extinct, so will the earth, but thats another story outside of the realms of science, so I won't elaborate on this. I really believe that diversity would rise in our absence.
　

Richard Drapo Chapter 10
The Survivors

3 Main Concepts

1. Ecological Refuges--Deep seas act as refuges, and it is these refuges that protect many species during environmental conditions that would otherwise have killed them.

2. General Patterns in Types of Survivors--After mass extinctions, it is appearant that the percent survival rate favors nontropical, species poor and widespread species over Tropical, Species rich and Endemic species.

3. Multitude of Traits--A multitude of traits in lineages may happen to provide buffers against extinction. Traits, such as, Migration, Refugia species, Preadapted taxa, Dormancy and Chance among others provide that extra protection from extinction,

3 Main Terms

1. Lazarus effect--loss of species and their reappearance later in the fossil record. Species whom appeared to have weathered the storm.

2. Stenobiomic organisms--Having a relatively narrow habitat range and food utilization pattern.

3. Eurybiomic organisms--Foraging over two or more biomes with relatively broad feeding and habitat utilization patterns.


QUESTIONS
2. To gain a stronger biological understanding of groups that are vulnerable or resistant to extinction, which particular taxa would you select for comparative study?
Bivalve species representing marine life, and herbavorous and insectavorus mammals.

5. Lazarus species and coelacanth-like species may be argued to have simply had extraordinarily good genes or good luck. If that is true, we should not expect to see any patterns among these kinds of species. Do you think there are some generalities to be found in the study of Lazarus species and species exhibiting the coelacanth effect?
Yes, especially in coelacanth species and the environments in which they live.

8. Scientists have acknowledged competition as a possible factor in extinction events. They have also recognized refuges from extinction that maintain high biotic diversity and thus have high potential for interspecies competition. Can you resolve the paradox wherein competition is emphasized in one case and ignored in the other?
Yes, for example, behavior interactions in mangrove ant communities, with primary and secondary species, competing with each other, leading to one of the species going extinct. Subsequently
the long endurance of the Coelacanth fish species can be attributed to its deep sea refuge and lack of presumably high competition normally prone in sea refuges.

10. Can you think of groups that are particularly valuable for high-detail combined studies on the ecology of living species and their paleobiology?
Yes, the giant tortoises on the Galapagos islands.
　


Richard Drapo Modeling The Fossil Record Chapter 11
Dr Wozencraft 22 October 97
BI 301


6. Do you feel that a modeling approach to the fossil record is important for separating general patterns from special cases.
Yes I do, an approach or a way to interpret the fossil record, prompts understanding of events that influenced taxa to either survive or die out. What we see today, is modeling to describe extinction events and the probabilities that affect taxa before, during and after mass extinctions. This is great, but how do we ascertain what is and what isn't in true facts? I believe that various modeling approaches try to do this and some do a heck of a job. But, which ones are right and which ones lead us astray?
Modeling that expresses patterns that are clearly evident and logical in showing relationships between the actual extinction events and taxa are the models to look at. But, do they show true ralationships or do they express patterns that are in conflict with the multitude of traits in lineages that provide buffers against extinction? If they do, then maybe we must re-estimate on how we arrived at the situation to begin with. For example, the pattern in estimating morphological diversity involving arthropods, page 238, clashes with the multiple traits described by Harries and Kauffman, page 215. Do we accept this morphological pattern or reject it?
It is in ones best interest to re-examine the facts and the theory behind the math that let us arrive at the present situation. If it all still seems correct, then we must determine why the conclusion reached on arthropod appendages that states partly that generalized taxa do not necessarily have longer geologic ranges, and highly specialized taxa are not especially sensitive to the forces causing extinction, page 238, clashes with the multiple traits that provide buffers against extinction. It is very important that are models coincide with the rules of our logic to arrive at more logical conclusions.

5. In addition to the modeling approaches discussed in this chapter can you think of other generalizations from extant taxa that could aid the discovery and understanding of pattern in the fossil record?
I think that to arrive at new generalizations from extant taxa, we should study the allopatric relations of the taxa on the Galapagos islands. We should review the scientific right ups on ornithology matters, and maybe study the generalizations of the giant tortoises that inhabit the islands. To come up with more generalizations, we should look at temperture, deep water habitats along with terrestrial habitats and study the geology of the islands and predict past and present
correlations. In so doing this we might be able to predict possible patterns and apply them in the fossil records.
However, we should also look at predator-prey models and relate them to species extinct and living today on the islands. By looking at these relationships, we might be able to come to conclusions that some of the extinct taxa were prey that were hunted and eaten into extinction. Did the dinosaurs, with their huge pallets have overly large hunting ranges to fill their huge appetites. Did the laying of more than one egg produce over abundant populations that were two numerous and did these populations diminish their food resources before the K-T boundary was established?
Thats a ratio of 1:4. A large dinosaur compared to small mammals would have a ratio of 1:100. These small animals would have to leave the area for food or stay in the area and be eaten to extinction. And, if the food became scarce, terrestrially, they would have no choice, but to turn to the waters for food or become cannabis. Let us keep in mind the huge dinosaurs that filtered the waters for food in shallow sea shelfs.
Perhaps, one day, massive predator-prey relationships will be identifiable in our fossil records, or someone will present a model that deviates on the matter.
　

Richard Drapo Human Evolution Chapter 12
BI 301 25 October 1997
Dr Wozencraft

QUESTIONS ABOUT THE CHAPTER
King and Wilson (1975) noted a pattern in which the DNA is more different than at the protein level. For every difference in amino acid sequence, about four base differences occur in the DNA. This disproportion may well be due to the redundancy in the genetic code, page 269 L.

1. What are those four base differences in the DNA sequence?

2. What is different about the noted patterns in which DNA is more
Sarich and Wilson (1966) studied proteins, such as, serum albumin in determining relationships between hominids and Old World monkeys, page 266 L.

1. What exactly are serum albumin?

2. What is the purpose of serum albumin?

5. Why is there not any documented Theories in Human Evolution that describe the possibilities of the evolutionary candidates among the hominids to be individual unique species? Maybe, Homo sapiens killed out the other similiar species because they were different or even hostile and agressive towards them. Whose to say, that these other unique beings, other than humans were not mince meat prey (due to the lack of fossilized skeletons).
Summary of Question; Do you believe that humans evolved?
Summary
Person 1; "I do not believe humans evolved, ie from ape to man. Evolution from one species to another has never been proven. They are still looking for the missing pieces. I believe in Creation."
Person 2; "Evolution of man from monkey is only a theory without any facts to back it up. Creation is the only belief for man with facts to back it up from the Bible. The man that authored that book on evolution, denied it before he past away. Why oh why does our schools continue to teach this lie, oh woe is mankind for this deception."
Person 3; "I believe in creation not evolution. In Genesis 1:1 It says "In the beginning God created the Heavens and the Earth.... Creation has been proven over and over, evolution will never be proven. In John 1:3 It says all things were made by Him and without him, was not anything made that was made. Creation is the work of God. No...humans did not evolve."
Person 4; "I do not believe that we evolved from apes. I believe in Creation."
Person 5; "I do not believe in human evolution" Why? "I don't know why, I just know. I believe in Creation."
　

Richard Drapo Chapter 12
BI 301 Human Evolution Dr Wozencraft 28 October 1997

3 Main Concepts

1. The Visual Predation Hypothesis-argues that the unique features of primate ecology and morphology derive from primates' habits as insectivorous predators in shrubs and low-canopy vegetation. Binocular vision enabled primates to accurately attack and capture highly mobile prey, and prehensile appendages permitted them to forage among small stems at the canopy margins.

2. Multiregional hypothesis-Did Homo erectus spread over the Old World and evolve in different regions in parallel, with small amounts of gene flow, producing multiple origins of modern humans. Also called candelabra model.

3. Replacement hypothesis-Was there a single origin of Homo sapiens, followed by population spread and replacement of archaic sapiens, with little mixing of genotypes among resident and colonizing populations? Answer, DNA mitochondria to trace phylogenetic relationships among modern humans that supports the replacement hypothesis originating out of Africa 200,000 years ago. Also called Noah's Ark Model

3 Main Terms

Binocular vision- Essential characteristic of predators.
Obstetrical dilemma- Reduction in the size of birth canal occurred a little before the dramatic increase in cranial capacity.
Manual Dexterity and Sensitivity-In the hands.

Main Questions
1. With the human body we can experience first-hand the result of phylogenetic constraints on design, and the inadequacies of adaptation in compensating for these constraints. Do you think that this empirical vantage point provides us with a unique case for understanding the relative strengths of phylogenetic constraints and adaptation?
Oh yea, very much so, indeed, it gives us a know how and an understanding, along with thinking capabilities to identify, design and observe new ways in devising many approaches in understanding constraints and adaptation methods.

2. In the modern human, at what age, or stage in the life history, is natural selection likely to become a weak force in human evolution?
When we give up and respond to our surroundings very pessimistically. This is when we truly invite old age, no matter what age we are, we can choose either to be young or old. We choose to stop learning and get set in our ways, tossing optimism aside and favoring ourselves by greedy dealings with others, and in return not helping others in need when we have the available resources. Natural selection will truly become a weak force because others will resent our attitude, and not want to have any thing to do with us. In other words, we choose old age, when in reality we are young or are actually old and want to throw in the towel.

3. If the human species survives another million years, what kinds of changes would you expect to see in design? Is it possible they would justify recognition of a new species?
We probably will develop or use more of our brain potential than what we are using right now. We will have the know how to repair ourselves mechanically to the point that the only thing left that is human would be the head and brain. Attached to the head and brain would be synthetic, mechanical and cultured parts that we have made to replace natural parts that became defective or became deceased. These man made parts would be tied into a computerized, C.P.U. that would make up our spinal column. Reproduction would still have to depend on natural human gametes. New species? Probably not, just an improvised one.

9. What does the high genetic similarity between humans and chipanzees reveal about the evolutionary process and the understanding of rates of genetic and phenotypic change?
It reveals that we have been wonderfully made using the same template (biological properties) and the process of genetics can create
very unique individuals or species. But, who designed the program, that runs on the software titled Genetics?
　

Chapter 13

3 Main Concepts
1. Biological classification- The grouping of similar organisms, based on evolutionary relationships, into a taxonomic hierarchy ranging from species to kingdoms.

2. Evolutionary school of classification- Traditional approach; it uses any information available to resolve issues on evolutionary pathways, branching of lineages, and divergence after branching and to construct a phylogram of relationships.

3. Cladistics (phylogenetics) school of classification- Emphasizes the branching pattern in phylogenies, which it sees as sets of dichotomous events. A Cladogram summarizes the phylogenetic relationships, showing a sequence from one parental stock to all derived taxa.
Phenetics school of classification emphasizes the use of many numerical characters to construct a phenogram showing similarity
and clustering of taxa, usually derived from computer-assisted statistical analysis of large data sets.


3 Main Terms

1. Homologous characters- Characters that are similar in traits of two or more organisms, resulting from common origin.

2. Plesiomorphic- Having an anciently homologous basis of similarity.

3. symplesiomorphies- Having shared ancestral characters.

MAIN QUESTIONS

4. Do you think that a rigorous application of holophyly will necessarily change classification at such major taxonomic levels as kingdoms, phyla, classes and orders?
Yes, these changes are already apparent in phylogenetic relationships, and most do not agree with the other Biological schools of thought, but sometimes make more sense. By showing common ancestry, and descendants from that common ancestry, we can get a better overall picture of evolutionary traits in animals.

6. Do you think that the process of classification improves as more rules on the methodology are developed?
　
Of coarse, and each and every discipline in science has benefited
from this evolution of methodology because it has helped make more sense to those individuals who practice science in their own particular disciplines, such as, Botanists, Mammalogists and so on.

7. Vicariance biogeography may be used to test a phylogenetic hypothesis, but Hennig suggested other independent tests such as the use of parasites on the lineage under study. How would you test a phylogenetic Hypothesis on a group of hosts using organisms that are closely associated ecologically such as symbiotic parasites or mutualists?
It's hard to say how I would approach this, but it really depends on the organism under study and knowing its vicariance biogeography. Maybe, after this information is known then other possible solutions can arise, but until then I really can't say.

8. How can the situation be resolved in which current higher taxa are delineated by the existence of gaps in characters, between genera or families for example, while a cladistic approach, which emphasizes ancestor descendent lineages, reduces the importance of gaps? For example, birds and dinosaurs have usually been regarded as distinct, but they are in the same holophyletic group.
Can it really be resolved? Unless these gaps are found in the fossil records they never will be resolved. New classifications on these taxa's can be hypothesized to eliminate the gaps or maybe some new conclusions need to be generated accepting the mere fact that all or a majority of organisms were put together by a process of activated genetics, that used like chemicals to create different organisms, or in other words, we were all made with a lot of the same ingredients but in different proportions of those ingredients.
And, because of those different proportions which can create gaps, can we gain or make up for those lost proportions? Probably not, but organisms are surly different because of those different proportions of like ingredients.
Can't we just accept the fact that these missing ingredients were never there to begin with? What we are possibly doing here, is throwing
in a bunch of peanuts into an all ready made batch of chocolate chip cookie doe.
　

Rich Drapo Genetic Systems, Chapter 14

3 Main Concepts

1. Red Queens Hypothesis-The argument that sexual reproduction is an object of selection because it results in rapid evolution when biotic forces such as predators, parasites, competition from other species, prey, or food plants exert strong selective pressures.

2. Pathogen ratchet or Rice's ratchet-The hypothesis that sexual reproduction is an object of selection because it reduces parent-offspring transmission of parasites. The rare progeny most different from the parental genotypes are least likely to be infected by the parent's parasites.

3. Muller's ratchet-The hypothesis that sexual reproduction is an object of selection because it purges deleterious mutations from some lines of progeny. Recombination produces some progeny that have reduced loads or are load-free.

3 Main Terms

1. Genetic System-All the factors that affect the hereditary behavior of a species and its evolutionary potential.

2. Parthenogenesis-Unisexual reproduction by a female, without male gametes, from an egg.

3. Polyploidy-A condition in which the number of chromosome sets in the nucleus is a multiple greater than 2 of the haploid number.
　


Rich Drapo Genetic Systems 14
　
MAIN QUESTIONS

1. To what extent could you argue that the mode of reproduction in a species is more important as an evolutionary factor than natural selection?
Modes of reproduction are very important, as Price has stated, Systems evolve within environmental constraints, and certain systems adapt or pre-adapt a species for exploitation of certain types of environments. Thus, each genetic system has a strategic advantage over others under particular circumstances. It is to our advantage to understand which genetic systems result in strategies that are highly adaptive and the environment constraints under which a strategy suffers.

5. If genetic systems encompass all factors that influence the evolutionary potential of a species, how should phylogenetic constraints enter into consideration of potential evolutionary rates and directions?
Phylogenetic constraints limits the evolutionary paths that many lineages can follow, however, reproductive modes, environment and natural selection, affect populations on a great scale, all are related or tied together and make up the total package. If evolutionary rates are to change at all, one of these factors that make up the total package would have to change, and the rest would surely follow.

10. Through the evolution of life in marine and terrestrial environments, can you trace any patterns in modes of reproduction by following particular phylogenetic lineages or any specific modes of life, such as lineages of carnivores, soil-dwelling heterotrophs, parasites, large primary producers, or marine phytoplankton or zoo plankton?
Yes, by looking at phylogenetic trees, of marine life, and their relationships towards each other. As soon as the relationship to a common ancestor is determined, one can begin to look at modes of reproduction and presumably begin to piece together evolutionary characteristics, such as endoskeletons, perforated pharynx's and paired appendages that are characteristic of the Chordates and their contributions to early vertebrates that eventually lead to the lineage of the carnivores. (Zoology)
　

Richard Drapo Primary Research Article
　
Evolutionary Genetics of New World Tree Squirrels
(Tribe Sciurini)

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIONS
If additional evidence documents conclusively that Microsciurus (Neotropical Dwarf Squirrels) has close phylogenetic ties with a particular lineage of Sciurus then it would no longer be appropriate to retain the genus Microsciurus.

METHODS
Protein variation was analyzed electrophoretically in 6 species of New World Tree squirrels representing four of five extant genera. Homogenates, consisting of 27 presumptive gene loci, such as enzymes and components in the hemoglobin were extracted from the kidney.

BIOSYS-1 program of Swofford and Selander (1981) was used to calculate average individual heterozygosity and percent polymorphism from the protein data subjected to parsimony analysis using PAUP 3.0, 1990.

CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANT THREE
1. If Microsciurus and Sciurus are 2 different Genera why are they closely related, evident by the parsimous cladogram? 2. This study proposes the reinvestigation of the phylogenetic position of Sciurus pusillus within this group and suggests addressing Moores (1959) hypothesis that red squirrels are only distinctly related to other New World tree squirrels. 3. Sciurus carolinensis and niger being the sister group.
Parsimony and locus-by-locus analysis of the protein data supported the close evolutionary affinity of the genera Sciurus and Microsciurus. Moreover, the PAUP programs consistency index read 0.788. Approximately 50 steps were involved in the PAUP program.

EVALUATION
My evaluation, warrants merit on the issues presented in this report. Although, a cladistic locus-by-locus analysis was performed focusing on phylogenetically informative portions by eliminating from consideration, autapomorphic alleles (alleles unique to individual taxa) and plesiomorphic alleles (ingroup alleles shared with outgroup taxa). A more specific explanation on this matter would of been nice, for example, on plesiomorphic alleles, did all alleles pertain to all ingroup species? If they did, fine. Also, did the autapomorphic alleles pertain only to niger and carolinensis?

This study was taken from the Journal of Mammalogy, 75(1):102-109, 1994.
　
Richard Drapo Change in Gene Frequencies Chapter 15
　
3 Main Concepts

1. Genetic Variation Within Populations:The geneticist examines protein products from several loci in an organism and, by sampling representative individuals in a population, obtains population estimates of genetic variation. This genetic variation indicates high levels of polymorphism in proteins in individuals and populations. Polymorphism: occurrence of many different forms in individuals of the same populations.

2. Genetic Variation During Speciation: Genetic identities between populations of the same species of Fruit flies, including subspecies, semispecies (Until isolation is complete), sibling species and nonsibling species

3. What Causes Deviations From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium: In the absence of evolution, the genotype frequencies in generation t + 1 are the squares of the gene frequencies among gametes produces in generation t.

1. Mode of Inheritance
2. Population Size
3. Mating System
4. Mutation
5. Gene Flow
6. Natural Selection
7. Gametic Disequilibrium:Nonrandom association of alleles at different loci into gametes.

3 Main Terms

1. Genetic Drift: Change in gene frequency between generations, due to sampling error that becomes stronger as populations decline in size.

2. Gene Flow: Movement of genes between populations, resulting from dispersal of individuals.

3. Natural Selection: results in the differential perpetuation of genotypes or the unequal transmission of genes to subsequent generations by different genotypes.
　

Richard Drapo 3 Dec 97
　
Assignment
Read Chapters 1-2 in the Bible.

Answer following questions:
1. What was the author's main points (at least 4)
A. God is the author of the universe and all animals.
B. God created man and woman.
C. Man was created to fellowship with God...in His likeness.
D. Man is caretaker of the world or to have dominion over it. 2:26

2. What style is it written in; history and biography of creation.

3. Where does the first creation story start and end. Where does the second creation story start and end?
Chapter 1, verse 3-31, universe and animals and man.
Chapter 2, v7 more details of man or Adam, gets to the point. Eve, 21-25.
　

Richard Drapo Is the Theory 4 Dec 1997
BI 301 of Evolution Chapter 21
Dr Wozencraft Adequate

3 Main Concepts

1. Biological Evolution: is a relatively small part of the sciences, but it is central to the whole of biology because it alone can account for both the unity among organisms and the great diversity of species that have occupied and do occupy this planet.

2. Evidence for extensive relationships among organisms:
- History of associations unfold in the genus of crickets.
- Links between circum-artic gulls in the genus Larus.
- Complexities of reticulate relationships in the plant genus Clarkia
- Dendroica warblers, Erythroneura leafhoppers, Rhagoletis fruit flies,
morabine grasshoppers in the genus Vandiemenella, and plants in the genera Gilia, Clarkia, Galeopsis, Dahlia, and Chrysanthemum...

3. The Processes in Evolution: Speciation, genetic systems, change in gene frequencies, molecular evolution, rate of evolution, and coevolution, gradualism and punctuated equilibrium....

3 Main Terms

1. Gaia hypothesis is a reasonable extrapolation of evolutionary theory to encompass a globe covered with integrated biological systems, creating homeostasis and fostering life.

2. Evolution: Descent with modification.

3. Grand Design: Nature in general and the beauty of many plants and animals do inspire a certain wonder, and so, many have felt that evolution is an inadequate theory. Perhaps, there is more....

QUESTIONS
3. Given that every intact and viable human society has spiritual beliefs central to its culture, is there an argument to be made that an adaptive evolutionary basis exists for acceptance of a metephysical world? Would the basis of such acceptance involve organic evolution, cultural evolution, or both?
Yes, and it just might be, because the Christian God has been around man since the beginning, so lineages from Adam and Eve that lost the concept of a living God, became jealous, and wanted to compete in the spiritual realm, so they made up their own Gods, such as Idols and Gods relating to earthy surroundings. And, it is very possible that they didn't like the ways, the living God, wanted them to worship towards Him. They wanted immediate results. They wanted something they can touch (Idols), something they could control for their own pleasures and intellect. The living God seemed to do things to slowly.
I think, as mentioned above that yes, cultural evolution, and not organic evolution has something to do with it.

4. Is there any biological, scientifically sound basis for arguing that the human species is the most advanced organism ever to exist on this earth, and that "the ascent of humans" is an apt phrase?
It depends on how you look at it, on a thinking, inventive and
constructive level, yes. But, every organism on this planet has a mission, or performs tasks that need to get done, so everything works in harmony. For example, bees polinate plants, and in return, plants flourish providing food for those individuals who feed on them. Ever, wonder about the important job those decomposing organisms do to clean things up, so our outdoors didn't resemble our kitchen garbage cans? Yes were special, but every living organism contributes something, and that is just as special.

6. If you were provided with one hour in which to present the theory of evolution, how would you structure your talk, and what would you emphasize?
I would talk on the processes of evolution (for contents, see main concepts above). And, I would structure the talk oriented to my audience.

10. To what extent do you think that evolutionary theory has strong predictive ability? Which specific examples would you develop for or against the assertion?
A great deal when considering the modern theory of evolution. A specific example, for this assertion is historical or all the issues that have been resolved. In a sense, all the metadata that has actually evolved the evolution word itself, or specifically the processes involved in evolution.


Disclaimer: This or these papers are the sole property of Richard S. Drapo and may be used with permission or the acknowledgement of the author or authors.

posted by R S Drapo @ 6:00 AM